The Lost Art Of Fishing

Crafted from wood, bone, stone and flax, Maori fishhooks were masterpieces of design and function, highly effective and able to target desirable species. Some of these innovative designs are making an impact in commercial long-lining.

Written by       Photographed by Te Papa

Effective fish hooks were used by Maori to harvest the rich fisheries of New Zealand, but after the introduction of metals by Europeans, they were quickly discarded. The nature of the designs, their function and unrecognised benefits were lost, and subsequently many hooks were incorrectly interpreted as decorative, ceremonial or magico-religious objects. So it’s ironic that internationally, many commercial fishers now regard circle hooks as a recent innovation, even though they were the preferred design used by Maori a millennium ago.

On arrival in New Zealand, between 1100 and 1300 AD, Polynesians had not developed the technology required to refine and smelt metal ores.Instead they used wood, bone, stone and shell to make hooks and other equipment to harvest fish, their main source of food. New Zealand plants such as flax (harakeke), cabbage tree (ti) and astelia (kiekie) provided fibrous material for fishing lines and nets that was equal to or superior to the jute, hemp and sisal in use by Europeans at the time. But unlike metals that can be forged and bent into any desired shape, natural materials impose limitations through the nature of their structure, and compromises were necessary.

Early European explorers, settlers and historians have suggested that Maori hooks, known as matau, were “odd”, “of doubtful efficacy”, “very clumsy affairs” or “impossible looking”. Even recent archaeologists have commented that the traditional hook was “shaped in a manner which makes it very difficult to imagine could ever be effective in catching a fish”.William Anderson, ship’s surgeon on board the Resolution during Cook’s third voyage in 1777, noted that Maori “live chiefly by fishing, making use…of wooden fishhooks pointed with bone, but so oddly made that a stranger is at a loss to know how they can answer such a purpose”.

Two hundred and thirty years later, a study of Maori fishhooks undertaken by the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa showed that the unusual design was related to how the hooks functioned—catching fish by rotating away from the direction of the point and trapping the jaw, rather than penetrating the fish in the manner of a modern metal hook or by acting as a lever as proposed by some archaeologists. In fact, the Maori fishhook represents a masterpiece of design that was unsurpassed anywhere in the world and as efficient at catching fish as any modern steel hook.

Larger hooks were made using strong wooden shanks with stout points made of bone or shell. Saplings and branches of trees were tied so they grew into the desired shape, and were then harvested when they reached a suitable size. The wood was carefully dried and hardened by being buried in earth beneath fires. Bone points, often made from human bone, were lashed firmly to a groove at the end of the shank with prepared flax (muka). Composite hooks were used to target large species such as sharks, groper and ling, but the traditional hooks rarely exceeded the breadth of three fingers. (128 mm length)
Larger hooks were made using strong wooden shanks with stout points made of bone or shell. Saplings and branches of trees were tied so they grew into the desired shape, and were then harvested when they reached a suitable size. The wood was carefully dried and hardened by being buried in earth beneath fires. Bone points, often made from human bone, were lashed firmly to a groove at the end of the shank with prepared flax (muka). Composite hooks were used to target large species such as sharks, groper and ling, but the traditional hooks rarely exceeded the breadth of three fingers. (128 mm length)
Slender hooks with wide gapes were used to capture albatross and other seabirds for food and feathers, and can be distinguished from hooks intended to catch fish by the lighter construction and lack of an inturned point. Many of these hooks were collected by early explorers, suggesting that the taking of seabirds with hook and line was an important source of food and feathers for Maori. (105 mm length)
Slender hooks with wide gapes were used to capture albatross and other seabirds for food and feathers, and can be distinguished from hooks intended to catch fish by the lighter construction and lack of an inturned point. Many of these hooks were collected by early explorers, suggesting that the taking of seabirds with hook and line was an important source of food and feathers for Maori. (105 mm length)

Maori were quick to adopt new materials that became available after the arrival of European explorers, sealers and whalers in the late 1700s. They continued to make fishhooks, but used metals and imported fibres. The traditional hooks were thrown away or traded and the wooden and flax components of the discarded ones soon decomposed. Valuable tools made from ivory or greenstone were often retained as decorative items, and today stylised fishhooks are seen as a symbol of Maori cultural revival.

But despite the arrival of new materials, Maori continued to replicate traditional forms in preference to hook shapes introduced by Pakeha well into the late 1800s, and the design of the rotating hook can be traced back, providing continuation and links with traditional culture. Eventually, however, the overwhelming number of mass-produced metal European hooks, and the difficulty of making hooks from nails, horseshoes and other metal objects, diminished the use of the traditional designs.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the increasing demand for Maori artefacts from collectors and tourists led to the manufacture of large numbers of replica hooks for trade by both Maori and European forgers, sometimes directly commissioned by artefact dealers. These fake hooks can often be distinguished by flimsy construction, non-traditional materials, crude lashings, unusual or overly ornate carved ornamentation, and the lack of in-turned points or angled grooves for attaching a line.

In many ways the evolution of matau is emblematic of the way in which Maori adapted European tools, materials and technology to their purposes—European influence and technology added to, rather than replaced, generally compatible Maori techniques, and customary materials were replaced or complemented by metals and, more recently, synthetic materials.

Today, commercial long-liners around the world have adopted a circle hook design almost identical in form and function to the traditional matau in recognition of its advantages and improved catch rates—technology preferred by Maori since their arrival in New Zealand.

Small one-piece matau are characterised by a forward-directed point which served to guide the fish’s jaw into the “trap” formed by the two inner barbs of the hook, which functioned in the same manner as the single point of a rotating hook. Although large hooks could be made from giant moa or whale bones, the maximum size was determined by the strength of the material required to land a large fish—there are many examples of broken hooks in the archaeological record. Internal barb hooks rarely exceed 35–50 mm in length, while rotating bone hooks rarely exceed 70–80 mm.
Small one-piece matau are characterised by a forward-directed point which served to guide the fish’s jaw into the “trap” formed by the two inner barbs of the hook, which functioned in the same manner as the single point of a rotating hook. Although large hooks could be made from giant moa or whale bones, the maximum size was determined by the strength of the material required to land a large fish—there are many examples of broken hooks in the archaeological record. Internal barb hooks rarely exceed 35–50 mm in length, while rotating bone hooks rarely exceed 70–80 mm.
Double internal barb rotating hooks targeted small-mouthed midwater (pelagic) feeding fish such as trevally and tarakihi. Similar bone hooks over 1000 years old are known from sites in North and South America, and some more than 5000 years old in Europe, reflecting similar design solutions to deal with the weakness of the material.
Double internal barb rotating hooks targeted small-mouthed midwater (pelagic) feeding fish such as trevally and tarakihi. Similar bone hooks over 1000 years old are known from sites in North and South America, and some more than 5000 years old in Europe, reflecting similar design solutions to deal with the weakness of the material.
Traditional Maori hooks, or matau, functioned by rotating and trapping the jaw of the fish rather than by penetrating it in the manner of modern steel hooks. Fishing lines were attached to the hook with a short snood tied to a groove on the shank of the matau. This groove was at right angles to the direction of the point and caused the hook to rotate away from the direction of the point when under tension, trapping the fish’s jawbone inside the narrow gap. Because matau did not function by piercing the fish, rods were not required to provide leverage to set the hook, and the hooks did not require a reversed barb. (80 mm length)
Traditional Maori hooks, or matau, functioned by rotating and trapping the jaw of the fish rather than by penetrating it in the manner of modern steel hooks. Fishing lines were attached to the hook with a short snood tied to a groove on the shank of the matau. This groove was at right angles to the direction of the point and caused the hook to rotate away from the direction of the point when under tension, trapping the fish’s jawbone inside the narrow gap. Because matau did not function by piercing the fish, rods were not required to provide leverage to set the hook, and the hooks did not require a reversed barb. (80 mm length)
These were used to target large-mouthed bottom-dwelling fish such as snapper and blue cod. Because of the thickness of the bone, bait could not be threaded onto the hook as with a modern metal hook, and had to be tied in place with a short piece of twine attached to a small hole, groove or protrusion at the lower bend of the shank. (65 mm length)
These were used to target large-mouthed bottom-dwelling fish such as snapper and blue cod. Because of the thickness of the bone, bait could not be threaded onto the hook as with a modern metal hook, and had to be tied in place with a short piece of twine attached to a small hole, groove or protrusion at the lower bend of the shank. (65 mm length)
Traditional Maori garments lacked pockets, so for safekeeping valuable greenstone and ivory tools, including fishhooks, were worn as personal adornment when not in use. They were valued as decorative taonga as well as for their usefulness. These hooks have a simple drilled suspension hole for use when the hook was worn on a string around the neck, as well as an angled groove for attaching a fishing line snood. (60 mm length)
Traditional Maori garments lacked pockets, so for safekeeping valuable greenstone and ivory tools, including fishhooks, were worn as personal adornment when not in use. They were valued as decorative taonga as well as for their usefulness. These hooks have a simple drilled suspension hole for use when the hook was worn on a string around the neck, as well as an angled groove for attaching a fishing line snood. (60 mm length)
The wearing of stylised hei matau is today seen as a symbol of Maori cultural revival. Large, flat taonga which superficially resemble much smaller fishhooks were thought to be stylised fishhooks by early historians. However, they may in fact represent tools (possibly scrapers), which were replaced by metal tools shortly after the arrival of Europeans and retained as decorative items when the knowledge of their original function had been lost. (103 mm width)
The wearing of stylised hei matau is today seen as a symbol of Maori cultural revival. Large, flat taonga which superficially resemble much smaller fishhooks were thought to be stylised fishhooks by early historians. However, they may in fact represent tools (possibly scrapers), which were replaced by metal tools shortly after the arrival of Europeans and retained as decorative items when the knowledge of their original function had been lost. (103 mm width)
Pelagic (midwater) fish were caught using trolling lures known as pa. Different types of lures were required for different species. Straight bone lures were used to catch large oceanic fish such as tuna and kingfish and were used without bait, but with tufts of trailing feathers to attract the prey. These lures were constructed with the fishing line extending along the shank to support the point when playing a large fish. (106 mm length)
Pelagic (midwater) fish were caught using trolling lures known as pa. Different types of lures were required for different species. Straight bone lures were used to catch large oceanic fish such as tuna and kingfish and were used without bait, but with tufts of trailing feathers to attract the prey. These lures were constructed with the fishing line extending along the shank to support the point when playing a large fish. (106 mm length)
Traditional pa kahawai were made using the rim of paua shell. The concave shell prevented the fishing line running down the hook to support the point, hence these lures were not strong enough to hold large fish, but were used to catch coastal species such as kahawai and koheru, and were fished from canoes as well as at river mouths. Some of these slender lures with elongated points—often made using dorsal spines from spiny dogfish—may have been used for jigging squid. (105 mm length)
Museum collections worldwide contain numerous examples of wood-backed paua shell pa kahawai. These wooden lures and unusual carved points with reversed barbs (which resemble metal barbed hook points) are unknown archaeologically and are thought to have been made in quantity only after the arrival of Europeans. It is likely that the delicate paua shell inlay was not easily made until steel tools were available. No historical record of wooden pa kahawai can be found prior to 1840, and the earliest examples in collections date from around 1860. Records show they were in use from the mid 1800s. However, large numbers appear to have been made at the Maori village of Parihaka and were sold through James Butterworth’s “Old Curiosity Shop” in New Plymouth in the late 1800s and early 1900s. (82 mm length)
Museum collections worldwide contain numerous examples of wood-backed paua shell pa kahawai. These wooden lures and unusual carved points with reversed barbs (which resemble metal barbed hook points) are unknown archaeologically and are thought to have been made in quantity only after the arrival of Europeans. It is likely that the delicate paua shell inlay was not easily made until steel tools were available. No historical record of wooden pa kahawai can be found prior to 1840, and the earliest examples in collections date from around 1860. Records show they were in use from the mid 1800s. However, large numbers appear to have been made at the Maori village of Parihaka and were sold through James Butterworth’s “Old Curiosity Shop” in New Plymouth in the late 1800s and early 1900s. (82 mm length)
Used principally to catch barracouta, pohau manga were long and made of a length of reddish wood with the line attached in a groove to protect it from the sharp teeth of the fish, which could easily cut the flax lines. Richard Sherrin reported anecdotal comments from early settlers of how two men, one rowing a canoe and the other fishing, could catch between 30 and 40 dozen barracouta per hour. Bone points held in place with wooden pins were rapidly replaced with nails after European metals became available.
Used principally to catch barracouta, pohau manga were long and made of a length of reddish wood with the line attached in a groove to protect it from the sharp teeth of the fish, which could easily cut the flax lines. Richard Sherrin reported anecdotal comments from early settlers of how two men, one rowing a canoe and the other fishing, could catch between 30 and 40 dozen barracouta per hour. Bone points held in place with wooden pins were rapidly replaced with nails after European metals became available.
Stone shank minnow lures were replaced by lures made using wire lashed to a piece of paua shell after the arrival of Europeans. Archaeological examples of these fishing lures are mostly incomplete, as flax lashings holding the bone point in place decomposed months after they were discarded. Large numbers have been found in archaeological sites, and very few intact examples are known from museum collections.
Stone shank minnow lures were replaced by lures made using wire lashed to a piece of paua shell after the arrival of Europeans. Archaeological examples of these fishing lures are mostly incomplete, as flax lashings holding the bone point in place decomposed months after they were discarded. Large numbers have been found in archaeological sites, and very few intact examples are known from museum collections.
Demand for souvenirs from tourists and collectors in the late 19th century led to the manufacture of large numbers of replicas and fakes by both Maori and Europeans. Many replicas were skilfully made using traditional techniques. However, others are crude and flimsy, frequently using materials such as greenstone points, or are overly carved to appeal to collectors. European forgers often paid Maori a commission for selling their “valuable family heirlooms” to unsuspecting tourists. (260 mm length)
Metals quickly replaced traditional materials to make fishhooks after the arrival of Europeans. Copper ships’ nails, wire and even horseshoes were skilfully made into hooks, using the traditional circle hook design. However, the overwhelming number of imported metal hooks (which were even used as a form of currency) soon reduced the manufacture of hooks from scratch and use of traditional designs. Today, the circle hook design is seen as a new development, but it is actually the rediscovery of a much older technology. (670 mm length)
Metals quickly replaced traditional materials to make fishhooks after the arrival of Europeans. Copper ships’ nails, wire and even horseshoes were skilfully made into hooks, using the traditional circle hook design. However, the overwhelming number of imported metal hooks (which were even used as a form of currency) soon reduced the manufacture of hooks from scratch and use of traditional designs. Today, the circle hook design is seen as a new development, but it is actually the rediscovery of a much older technology. (670 mm length)

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